Ø
Adequate
and inadequate cohesion:
1.
Macro-level strategies
Cohesion
in writing is achieved in many ways. It is created at the overall text and
paragraph level by:
·
the structure and content of your
introductions and conclusions.
·
the overall structure of your text – how
the parts fit together.
·
the organisational principle you choose to
sequence and present your information, arguments and supporting evidence.
·
the structure of your individual
arguments.
·
the way you develop your arguments so that
your readers are persuaded by them.
·
the way you structure your paragraphs.
2.
Micro-level
strategies
In
addition to the structural components listed above, English uses a range of
micro-level language strategies to make a text cohesive.
This
unit will introduce you to four strategies you can use to help create better
cohesion in your writing:
Theme and
thematic progression – Thematic progression builds meaning
by carrying central ideas through the text.
Vocabulary
choices – The use of repetition, synonyms and
opposites, and other language choices ensures that your reader does not lose
the thread of what you are writing about.
Reference –
Using forward and backward reference within your texts enables you to pick up
information already referred to, without having to repeat the same words and
phrases.
Conjunctions –
These are used to place individual items of information into meaningful
relationships with one another.
Cohesion is the resources within
language that provide continuity in a text, over and above that is provided by
clause structure and clause complexes. Halliday and Hasan (1976) in Coulthard
(1974) claims that cohesion is formed by the formal ties, which bind one
sentence to another. There are five headings of cohesion based on Halliday and
Hasan (1976). They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctin and
lexical cohesion.
1. Reference
Reference is one kind of cohesive ties
in texture. Reference refers to how the speaker or writer introduces participants
and then keeps track of them once they are in the text (Eggins, 1994:95). Its
elements establish semantic relationship between them, in which one of the
elements provides the other with the meaning.
2. Substitution
A substitution is the replacement of a
word (group) or sentences segment by a “dummy” word. The reader can fill in the
correct element based on the preceding sentences (Rankema, 1993: 37).
Substitution is replacement of language element into others in a bigger
composition in order to get clearer difference, or to explain some certain
language elements. It is an item or items replaced by another item or items.
There is a distinction between substitution and reference in which subtitution
is a realization in the wording rather than in the meaning.
3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of a word or
part of a sentence. It occurs when some essential structural elements are
omitted from a sentence or clause and can only be recovered by refering to an
element in the preceding text (Nunan, 1993: 25). Accoding to Halliday and Hasan
(1976: 144) ellipses occur when something that is structurally necessary is
left unsaid, there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it. The
information is understood, but not stated. Like substitution, ellipsis is a relation
within the text and in the great majority of instances the pressuposed item is
present in the preceding text.
4. Conjunction
One explanation to the concept of
conjunction comes from Baker (1992). He asserts that conjunction is a
relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be
linked to the preceding or the following sentence or clause by using cohesive
ties which relate a sentence, a clause or a paragraph to each other.
5. Lexical Cohesive Device
The types of cohesion we have discussed
so far all involve grammatical resource/ items (conjunction, reference items,
substitutes items) and grammatical structure. Cohesion also operates within the
lexical zone of lexicogrammar by choosing of lexical items. Lexical cohesive
devices refer to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing
relation within a text (Baker, 1992: 202). It does not deal with grammatical
and semantic connection but with the connection based on the words used.
Ø cohesion
A speaker or writer of language can
distinguish the differences between a text and a non-text. A text must have
texture (Eggins, 1994:85). Texture is what holds the sentences of a text
together to make them unity. In binding texts, it needs ties. Martin (2001: 37)
states that tie is the relationship between an item and the item it presupposed
in a text. It is also called a cohesive tie. There are five types of cohesive
ties: reference, substitution, elipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. These
five cohesive ties produce cohesion. Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) define that
cohesion is as relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that
defines it as a text. Cohesion is a semantic relation between an element in the
text and some other elements that are crucial to the interpretation of it.
From the elaboration above, it is very
clear that text is not bound with the length of itself, but it refers to any
linguistic unit.
Ø
The difference between coherence and
cohesion:
How is cohesion different from
coherence? It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence as
the discourse making sense as a whole at an ideas level, and cohesion as rather
more mechanical links at a language level. You can imagine that it is possible
for a piece of writing to contain plenty of cohesion yet little coherence.
Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if
a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from
paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words
and phrases, such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for
listeners/readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However,
transitions aren't enough to make writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and
use of reference words are also needed for cohesion.
Coherence means to hold together. It
means that texts have the right order with the clear process. In addition to
unity, coherence plays an important role in making a text read well. A coherent
text consists of interrelated sentences which move smoothly one for another.
From the significance of the writing, I
was inspired and interested to conduct a research which investigate the
cohesion and coherence of the students’ texts with my own reasons. Firstly, it
is very important to analyze the cohesion and coherence of the students’ texts.
Then, the research finding is used to improve the quality of teaching writing.
The last reason is to improve the students’ competence in writing good texts.
It is due to the fact that the teaching of English as foreign language is based
on genre-based approach in which the students are supposed to produce texts.
Cohesion describes
the way in which a text is tied together by linguistic devices, such as And so we see . . . , Additonally . . . , Therefore . . . ,
However . . . and On the other hand . . .
A text has coherence if its constituent sentences follow on
one from the other in an orderly fashion so that the reader can make sense of
the entire text.
“This one is about me”
Well, this paragraph will
describe all of about me. My name, age, hobby, and etc. If you want to know deeply about me, just read
this paragraphs correctly and carefully. (introducing) My name
is Atika dwiyanti, my nick name is atika. Now I’m 19 years old. I’m a student of english study program in muhammadiyah
university of metro. Now I’m in 4th semester.
I’m a simple girl, humble with other people esspecially with my best
friends. I live in Raman utara east lampung with my belove parents and
my old brother. But now, I stay in a boarding house with my friends. (
identification) and
about my physic, Iam not tall but not short, around 150 cm. According
my friends my body is slim because my weight just likes 40 kg, and I think so.
I have slim body because my parents are not too tall and not too big. I
enjoy have slim body because I dont want my body be fat. I have beautiful black long hairs, Iam very
love it so much. My eyes color are black and my skin color light brown.
I have a flat nose, and I hope someday it can be pointed nose. One of the
best thing about me is love, I heve so much love in my life. Especially for
my parents, my friends and for all of the people who have given me love too. I
have some hobbies, they are listening music and watching movies. First, I like
pop music, usually I listen indonesia and western pop music. I love
listening music because it can change my feeling directly. When I feel sad, I
play it and directly my problem lose. Second, I like watcing movies especially
romance. Usually I watch movies that the actor is handsome, because he
can make the movies be interesting. When I have free time and my assignments
are so many, usually I just do it until it done well. But if there is no
assignment Usually I play or go to somewhere with my best friends,
usually we go to shopping, look for a new beautiful place for eat together, or
go to karaoke to refresh our mind. Usually my friends like sing a dangdut
song, but I like sing pop song.(description).
So, you can call me Atika, I’m humble and
have a lot of love for each other. And all of that I heve, I really grateful to
the god. (concluding).
Analyze:
1. One of the best thing
about me is love . The word me is a personal reference
which refers to the first person singular.
2. I think so. In the sentence above,
the word so presupposes the whole clause According my friends my body
is slim because my weight just likes 40 kg. The word so above
belongs to clause substitution.
3. Usually my friends like
sing a dangdut song, but I like sing pop song. In
the second sentence the word dangdut song is not mentioned after the
word a pop song. Then, the noun a pop song functions as Head.
4. Because, and But or .Are
conjunction.
5. I enjoy have slim body
because I dont want my body be fat. Here, the
word slim is the opposite of fat.
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